Quick Guide – What is Utilitarianism?

What is Utilitarianism?

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory by which actions are judged solely according to their anticipated results. Because it focuses entirely on the outcomes of an action to determine whether it is morally right or wrong, it is known as a consequentialist theory.

The Three Types of Utilitarianism

Act Utilitarianism: The theory is applied to the results of individual actions (e.g., “Will stealing this specific loaf of bread right now create happiness?”).
Rule Utilitarianism: The theory takes into account the results of obeying general rules of conduct (e.g., “If everyone stole bread, would that create happiness?”).
Preference Utilitarianism: The theory takes into account the preferences of those involved in a particular course of action, rather than just raw pleasure.

The Principle of Utility

The core rule of Utilitarianism is simple: Where there is a moral choice, do that which results in ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.’

This is known as the Greatest Happiness Principle (GHP). It states that the moral worth of an action is based entirely on how much happiness it produces. An action that produces a lot of happiness is morally right, and one that produces sadness is morally wrong.

The Greatest Happiness Principle is made up of three components:

The Consequentialist Principle: The consequences of an action are all that matters when deciding if it is good or not.
The Hedonic Principle: The only consequence that matters is happiness.
The Equity Principle: No one’s happiness is more important than anyone else’s.

What is Happiness?

Philosophers and psychologists have debated happiness for centuries. (Even modern Illusionist Derren Brown wrote a book exploring the concept, arguing against the constant modern chase for it in favour of stoic contentment!).

However, Utilitarians claim that what everyone fundamentally wants is to be happy. They argue this is intuitively right; we instinctively know it without even thinking about it.

For Utilitarians, happiness is found in the promotion of pleasure and the avoidance of pain.

When we experience pleasure, we are happy.
When we experience pain, we are unhappy.
Therefore, doing a “good” thing means creating pleasure. Doing a “bad” thing means causing pain.

The Founders of Utilitarianism

Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832)

Jeremy Bentham is the founder of Utilitarianism and is heavily associated with Act Utilitarianism. Born in London, he believed society needed significant reform.

Bentham used Utilitarianism to champion ideas that were considered incredibly radical for his time. Because he applied the “greatest happiness” principle logically, he campaigned:

FOR: Freedom of speech, equal rights for women (including the right to divorce), the decriminalisation of homosexuality, and animal rights.
AGAINST: Slavery, physical punishment (including smacking children), and the death penalty.

Fun Fact: Bentham left strict instructions for his body after his death in 1832. His body was preserved and is currently on display at University College London!

John Stuart Mill (1806–1873)

John Stuart Mill was a pupil of Jeremy Bentham and is the key figure associated with Rule Utilitarianism.

Mill had an intense upbringing. His father, a strict follower of Bentham, deliberately shielded him from other children to create a genius who would carry on the Utilitarian cause. Mill was reading Aristotle in original Greek by age 12! Unsurprisingly, this led to a nervous breakdown at age 21, which he attributed to the extreme stress of his childhood. He recovered and became one of the most influential writers of his era.

Calculating Happiness

Bentham’s Hedonic Calculus

Bentham believed that every person had the exact same entitlement to happiness, and all happiness had the same value. He wanted to create a mathematical way to measure the pleasure and pain of an action to scientifically determine if it created the greatest good.

He created the Hedonic Calculus, which uses seven factors to score an action. (Bentham proposed the first six; Mill later added the seventh).

Here is how the calculus works in a simple example: Should I drink a cup of tea or go to the cinema?

Criteria	Question to ask	Drinking Tea	Going to the Cinema
Intensity	How intense will the pleasure be?	5/10 (Good, but not amazing)	6/10 (Very fun)
Duration	How long will it last?	2/10 (Only while drinking)	3/10 (The movie + thinking about it after)
Certainty	How likely is the pleasure to happen?	9/10 (Tea is reliable)	5/10 (The movie might be terrible)
Propinquity	How immediate is the pleasure?	10/10 (Instant gratification)	5/10 (Takes time to get to the cinema and start)
Fecundity	How likely is it to lead to more pleasure?	10/10 (Common daily pleasure)	5/10 (An occasional treat)
Purity	How likely is it to be followed by pain?	3/10 (The sadness when the tea is gone)	5/10 (Could be a waste of money if it’s bad)
Extent	How many people will experience it?	1/10 (Just you)	2/10 (You and a friend)
TOTAL		40	31
(According to the calculus, you should stay home and drink the tea!)

Mill: Higher and Lower Pleasures

Mill strongly disagreed with Bentham’s idea that all pleasure is equal and can simply be counted up. Mill argued that pleasure should be measured by its quality, not just its quantity.

He split pleasures into two categories:

Higher Pleasures: Intellectual pleasures (e.g., reading a good book, going to the theatre, learning a new skill).
Lower Pleasures: Sensual/physical pleasures (e.g., eating, drinking, sleeping).

Mill argued that Higher Pleasures are far superior and supersede Lower Pleasures.

The Key Differences: Bentham vs. Mill

Quality vs. Quantity: Bentham focused on the amount of pleasure; Mill focused on the quality (Higher vs. Lower).
Timeframe: Mill emphasised long-term goals over immediate pleasures, arguing that short-term pain is acceptable if it leads to long-term happiness.
Acts vs. Rules: Bentham believed you should calculate the moral value of every single act (Act Utilitarianism). Mill argued humans should stick to general moral rules (Rule Utilitarianism) because society benefits when rules like “do not steal” are universally followed.

Evaluating Utilitarianism

Strengths

Linking morality with happiness and the avoidance of harm seems reasonable and logical.
It fits with human nature, as most people naturally consider the consequences of an action before they make a decision.
It promotes altruism by forcing us to consider the impact our actions have on others.
It provides a clear, common-sense approach to making moral decisions.

Weaknesses

The Prediction Problem: No one can accurately predict the future. You cannot know for certain what the long-term consequences of an action will be.
The Measurement Problem: Determining what counts as “pleasurable” is subjective. Trying to accurately measure and compare the quality of happiness between different people is near impossible.
The Justice Problem: Because it relies on the “greatest number,” Utilitarianism can be used to justify injustice and the unfair treatment of minority groups if it brings happiness to the majority.

Further Exploring

To learn more about the specifics of the theory, check out Utilitarianism.com